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The  Development  of  Philosophy 
in  Japan 


BY 
TSUNEZO  KISHINAMI 


PRINCETON  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 
PRINCETON 

LONDON:  HUMPHREY  MILFORD 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

1915 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  PHILOSOPHY 
IN  JAPAN 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/developmentofphiOOkishrich 


The  Development  of  Philosophy 
in  Japan 


A  DISSERTATION 

PRESENTED   TO   THE 

FACULTY   OF   PRINCETON   UNIVERSITY 

IN   CANDIDACY   FOR   THE   DEGREE 

OF   DOCTOR   OF   PHILOSOPHY 


BY 

TSUNEZO  KISHINAMI 


PRINCETON  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

PRINCETON 

LONDON:  HUMPHREY  MILFORD 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

1915 


^v 


o^ 


p.t*' 


Gift 


Published,  October,  191 5 

Accepted  by  the  Department  of  Philosophy 

June,  1914 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF    PHILOSOPHY 
IN   JAPAN 

I.  INTRODUCTION 

The  real  beginning  of  the  philosophical  development  in 
Japan  is  the  time  of  the  so-called  Revolution  of  Meiji/ 
though  the  Oriental  philosophy  of  life  was  well  developed 
many  centuries  earlier  and  prepared  the  Japanese  mind  in 
complex,  manifold  and  subtle  ways  for  the  new  study  of  the 
Occidental  philosophy.  It  is,  therefore,  barely  a  half  century's 
progress  that  mainly  concerns  our  present  study.  Of  course  it 
is  too  short  for  the  mental  development  of  the  race,  for  a 
decade  of  years  is  only  one  year  to  the  race  development.  In 
fact,  the  Japanese  mind  is  still  in  the  stage  of  assimilation.  It 
cannot  yet  show  anything  which  is  worthy  to  be  called  a  native 
production  in  the  field  of  philosophy.  It  is  not,  however, 
without  interest  to  study  the  mental  processes  of  a  people,  who, 
until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  were  entirely  secluded 
from  the  outer  world.  A  too  hasty  reception  of  such  dignified 
thought  as  the  Western  philosophy  would,  indeed,  have  been 
open  to  suspicion.  Is  there  not  after  all  a  danger  like  indi- 
gestion or  suffocation  of  the  mind?  How  and  in  what  manner 
have  the  Japanese  assimilated  the  new  and  difficult  thought? 
What  is  their  merit  and  what  is  their  defect  in  philosophical 
development?  What  will  be  their  future ?  These  and  kindred 
questions  require  our  careful  and  faithful  investigation.  Some 
may  deplore  as  unduly  indulgent  the  assumption  that  the  Japa- 
nese labors  in  the  field  of  philosophy  are  deserving  of  such 
study.  I  should  claim  that  their  very  immaturity  may  lend  added 
interest  to  the  enquiry  and  may  even  serve  as  a  claim  to  our 
special  attention.  But  even  though  my  task  may  be  regarded  by 
some  as  of  little  consequence,  I  shall  strive  to  describe  it  in  a 
faithful  manner.     As  Augustine  has  said,  "Little  things  are 

'  1868  A.D. 

3^4614 


little   ibir.gE;   but   faithfulness   in   little   things    is   something 
great." 

11.     THE  MENTAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE 
JAPANESE 

It  is  helpful,  nay,  even  necessary  for  our  present  task  to 
have  a  general  knowledge  of  the  mental  characteristics  of  the 
Japanese.  The  mental  play  in  the  theatre  of  a  nation  can  be 
fully  understood  only  in  and  through  our  thorough  familiarity 
with  some  main  and  significant  traits  of  its  actors.  If  we 
neglect  this  preliminary  study  we  can  hardly  penetrate  into  the 
real  nature  of  what  has  been  happening. 

It  seems  to  me  that  Mr.  Dening  is  quite  adequate  when  he 
describes  the  Japanese  characteristics  in  the  following  manner : 

"Neither  their  past  history  jior-their  prevailing  taste  show  any  tend- 
ency to  idealism.  They  are  lovers  of  the  practical  and  real;  neither  the 
fancies  of  Goethe  nor  the  reveries  of  Hegel  are  to  their  liking.  Our 
poetry  and  our  philosophy  and  the  mind  that  appreciates  them  are  alike 
the  results  of  a  net-work  of  subtle  influences  to  which  the  Japanese 
are  comparative  strangers.  It  is  maintained  by  some,  and  we  think 
justly,  that  the  lack  of  idealism  in  the  Japanese  mind  renders  the  life 
of  even  the  most  cultivated  a  mechanical,  humdrum  affair  when  com- 
pared with  that  of  Westerners.  The  Japanese  can  not  understand  why 
our  controversialists  should  wax  so  fervent  over  psychological,  ethical, 
religious,  and  philosophical  questions,  failing  to  perceive  that  this 
fervency  is  the  result  of  the  intense  interest  taken  in  such  subjects. 
The  charms  that  the  cultivated  Western  mind  finds  in  the  world  of  fancy 
and  romance,  in  questions  themselves,  irrespective  of  their  practical 
bearings,  are  for  the  most  part  unintelligible  to  the  Japanese." 

There  are  abundant  proofs  of  this  practical  tendency  of 
Japanese  thought.  One  of  the  most  obvious  instances  is  the 
fact  that  when  the  Japanese  came  in  contact  with  Western 
culture,  they  first  of  all  learned  those  arts  and  science,  espe- 
cially the  niedkal  and  the  military,  which  are  most  directly 
connected  with  individual  and  national  existence.  In  so  doing 
they  revealed  a  quite  remarkable  power  of  using  their  new 
knowledge  to  good  practical  purpose.  Indeed  the  Japanese 
tend  toward  utilitarianism  in  the  wider  sense  of  that  term.  As 
Mr.  Dening  has  said,  they  are  lovers  of  the  practical  and  the 
real.  They  tend  to  consider  that  what  is  real  is  true  and  that 
what  is  true  is  real.    We  find  them  saying  that  "proof  is  better  \ 


than  argument."  This  tendency  has  had  such  free  play  that 
the  people  have  in  many  respects  shown  themselves  prone  to  a 
materialism  or  naturalism  which  conflicts  with  the  Christian 
view  of  life  and  which  places  added  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
their  evangelization. 

The  development  of  philosophical  ideas  in  Japan  also  illus- 
trates this  practical  tendency.  A  philosophy  of  conduct,  which 
has  derived  its  inspiration  chiefly  from  the  Confucian  teaching, 
ruled  the  people  for  many  centuries.  As  Dr.  Dyer  states  in  his 
work  "Dai  Nippon,"-  the  chief  end  of  education  in  Japan  was  I 
to  huild  up  character.  This  practical,  or  virtue-centric  ten- 
dency has  been  insisted  upon  by  one  of  the  most  typical 
philosophers  of  Old  Japan  :^ 

"Scholar  is  a  name  for  virtue,  not  for  arts.  Literature  is  an  art,  and 
a  man  with  an  inborn  genius  for  it  has  no  difficulty  in  becoming  a  man 
of  letters.  But  though  proficient  in  letters,  he  is  not  a  scholar  if  he  be 
lacking  in  virtue.  He  is  only  an  ordinary  person  knowing  letters.  An 
illiterate  man  with  virtue  is  not  an  ordinary  person.  He  is  a  scholar 
without  letters." 

^J^ot  only  Nakae  but  almost  all  scholars  emphasised  "to  be" 
in  order  "to  do."  In  other  words,  they  all  strove  to  realize 
the  true  self  and  regarded  it  as  the  ultimate  end  of  life. 

The  same  trait  is  obvious  in  the  development  of  Buddhism  in 
Japan.  Owing  to  its  extramundane  nature  and  its  pessimistic 
tone  Buddhism  did  not  at  first  appeal  to  the  native  mind,  except 
that  its  rites  and  arts  found  a  response  in  their  superstitions 
and  aesthetic  nature.  But  when  the  people  came  to  reflect  on 
life,  and  were  dissatisfied  with  its  present  state,  especially  at  a 
period  when  men's  chief  business  was  to  fight  and  women's 
to  weep,  Buddhism,  with  its  doctrine  of  Karma  and  Nirvana, 
gave  solution  to  their  problems  and  salvation  to  their  restless 
souls.  Calmness,  patience  and  benevolence  are  its  meritorious 
outcome ;  and  are  written  large  in  Japanese  life. 

It  is  worth  while  to  notice  the  rise  of  a  new  sect  called 
"Shinshiu"  in  1266.  The  Shinshiu  has  been  called  the  "Pro- 
testantisjm  of  Japan."  Its  teaching  is  akin  to  Christianity.  It 
puts  stress  on  salvation  by  faith.    It  teaches  that  Amida,  god 

=  P.  44. 

'Toju  Nakae.  See  Mr.  Uchimura's  "Representative  Men  of  Japan." 
(Pp.  139-178.) 


of  gods,  is  a  merciful  being,  and  that  his  mercy  is  so  abundant 
that  any  person,  however  sinful  and  wicked,  if  only  he  pray 
with  true  and  earnest  heart  for  his  salvation,  can  be  saved  by 
merciful  Amida.  V  This  sect,  unlike  other  sects,  is  in  direct 
contact  with  actual  life.  Its  priests  may  marry,  and  they  are 
free  to  eat  both  flesh  and  fish.  ^  It  is  the  most  powerful  of  the 
Japanese  sects;  its  temples  are  large  and  magnificent,  are 
found  in  the  most  crowded  parts  of  the  cities,  and  are 
thronged  day  and  night  with  earnest  worshippers.  In  opposi- 
tion to  this  sect  is  the  "Zejashiu"  or  "contemplative"  sect.  It 
is  akin  to  Spinoza's  ethical  teaching,  seeking  salvation  through 
the  acquisition  of  truth.  Not  faith  but  reason,  not  heart  but 
mind,  this  sect  regards  as  essential  for  the  living  of  a  good  life. 
This  sect,  inspires  the  educated  people,  while  the  Shinshiu  sect 
meets  the  need  of  the  common  people.  Both,  however,  agree 
in  their  practicaJLtendency  and  close  attachment  to  life. 

This  tendency  is  even  more  obviously  revealed  in  Bushido,  a 
moral  principle  of  the  Samurai,  and  in  the  popular  philosophy 
of  Shingaku.  Both  are  an  outcome  of  genuine  Japanese  life 
in  so  far  as  that  has  been  moulded  by  the  intermingled  influ- 
ences of  Confucianism,  Buddhism  and  Shintoism.  But  that  is 
a  matter  which  I  cannot  here  discuss  in  detail.  In  Dr.  Nitobe's 
famous  work  "Bushido"  and  Dr.  Knox's  "Japanese  Life  in 
Town  and  Country,"  there  is  ample  evidence,  sufficient  to  con- 
vince every  fair-minded  reader,  that  these  movements  are  both 
practical  in  type  and  genuinely  Japanese  in  character. 

The  Japanese,  in  short,  are  a  predominantly  practical  people. 
Being  practical,  as  Dr.  Takayama  has  well  said,  their  single  aim 
is  lif£.  This  is  at  once  their  defect  and  their  merit;  d,efect, 
because  it  may  hinder  the  development  of  their  speculative 
thinking;  and  i^ierit,  because  it  keeps  intact  the  vital  relation 
between  life  and  thought.  It  is  a  question,  however,  how  far 
this  practical  tendency  has  proved  a  hindrance.  Indeed  it 
may  be  argued  that  it  has  actually  aided  in  the  development  of 
Japanese  philosophy.  Japan,  so  long  secluded  from  the  world, 
and  suddenly  awakened  as  from  a  dream,  had  good  reason  to 
hold  fast  to  its  anchorage  in  the  practical  necessities  of  life. 
But  before  we  enter  upon  a  discussion  of  this  subject,  let  us 
see  how  the  Japanese  with  their  remarkably  practical  tendency 
did  in  fact  accomplish  their  philosophical  development.     The 

6 


above  question  will  then  be  more  easily  solved;  nay,  we  shall 
find  it  already  answered. 

III.     THE  STAGES  OF  PHILOSOPHICAL 
DEVELOPMENT 

We  must  constantly  bear  in  mind  the  preliminary  or  embry- 
onic stage  in  the  philosophical  development  of  Japan,  that  is, 
the  development  of  Oriental  thought  in  Old  Japan,  prior  to  the 
Revolution  of  Meiji.*  If  we  consider  the  great  period  of  time 
over  which  this  preliminary  development  extends  and  the 
degree  to  which  it  has  moulded  the  Japanese  mind,  we  shall  not 
be  in  danger  of  underestimating  the  part  which  it  is  destined  to 
play  in  all  modern  Japanese  movements.  But  with  this  word  of 
caution,  I  must  leave  it  undiscussed.  It  falls  outside  the  scope 
of  our  present  enquiry. 

There  are  three  main  stages  in  the  philosophical  development 
of  New  Japan.  The  first  stage,  during  which  French  and 
English  thought  was  influential,  covers  the  period  from  the 
beginning  of  Meiji  to  the  latter  part  of  the  second  decade.  The 
second  stage,  during  which  German  thought  was  influential, 
begins  amidst  the  prevailing  influence  of  previous  thought  and 
extends  to  the  end  of  the  fourth  decade.  The  third  stage,  dur- 
ing which  the  subject  of  study  was  widened  and  interest  among 
the  people  was  expanded,  appears  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  de- 
cade and  continues  to  the  present  day.  These  three  stages  have 
as  their  respective  backgrounds  the  corresponding  tendencies  of 
thought  on  politics,  social  problems,  education  and  religion. 
These  backgrounds  make  the  development  of  philosophy  pecu- 
liar and  complex  in  each  of  its  stages. 

I.  The  First  Stage 
(Approximately  1868-1886) 
The  first  stage  of  philosophical  development  in  Japan  is, 
broadly  speaking,  a  period  of  Enlightenment.  For  the  Japan- 
ese at  this  time,  having  been  awakened  by  the  new  light  of  the 
culture  and  science  of  the  West,  lost  their  confidence  in  the 
traditional  authorities  and  powers.  They  began  to  recognize 
the  right  of  individual  reasoning  in  the  various  spheres,  politi- 

*  1868  A.D. 

7 


cal,  social,  moral  and  religious.  They  dethroned  custom  and 
enthroned  truth.  "Truth  and  nothing  but  truth"  was  the 
watchword  of  this  time.  Anything  and  everything,  therefore, 
that  was  new  and  rational  seemed  acceptable  to  them,  and  at 
once  struck  root  into  the  soil  of  the  Japanese  mind.  This 
Zeitgeist  is  fully  embodied  in  Emperor  Mutsuhito  himself. 
On  ascending  the  throne  in  1868,  the  young  emperor  enunciated 
the  fundamental  principles  of  his  government  in  the  form  of  a 
solemn  oath,  which  has  since  then  been  known  as  "the  Five 
Articles  of  the  Imperial  Oath."    The  articles  are  as  follows : 

(i)  Deliberative  assemblies  should  be  established,  and  all 
members  of  government  should  be  controlled  by  public  opinion. 

(2)  All  classes,  high  or  low,  should  unite  in  vigorously  car- 
rying out  the  programme  upon  what  the  government  may 
decide. 

(3)  Officials,  civil  and  military,  and  all  common  people 
should,  as  far  as  may  be  possible,  be  allowed  to  fulfil  their  just 
desires,  so  that  they  may  not  be  divided  by  discontent. 

(4)  Uncivilized  customs  of  former  times  should  be  broken 
through,  and  everything  should  be  based  upon  the  just  and 
equitable  principles  of  nature. 

(5)  Knowledge  should  be  sought  for  throughout  the  world, 
that  the  welfare  of  the  empire  may  be  promoted. 

These  articles,  like  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  reveal 
the  spirit  of  a  revolutionary  age.  This  is  especially  true  of  the 
last  two  articles,  which  re-echo  the  rationalistic  unhistorical 
character  of  the  eighteenth  century  European  Enlightenment. 

The  introduction  of  Western  philosophy  into  Japan  occurred 
under  the  influence  and  inspiration  of  this  general  movement, 
but  took  place  in  a  very  gradual  manner.  Mr.  Miyake  has  sug- 
gested that  philosophical  studies  might  have  developed  more 
rapidly  had  the  United  States  been  less  essentially  practical, 
and  the  existing  American  philosophies  been  less  closely 
allied  with  religion.  This  view,  though  it  may  be  true  in  certain 
respects,  seems  to  me  to  be  at  least  one-sided.  As  I  have 
already  argued,  I  think  it  was  both  natural  and  necessary  that 
the  Japanese,  temperamentally  a  practical  people,  should  first 
turn  their  attention  to  the  medical  and  military  arts  and 
sciences,  and  should  not  until  later  occupy  themselves  with  pure 

8 


speculative  learning.  The  development,  has  indeed,  depended 
upon  external  circumstances,  but  in  much  greater  degree  upon 
native  needs.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  and  can  not  be  accounted 
mere  chance  that  Prof.  Wayland's  "Ethics"  and  "Political 
Economy"  were  widely  read  by  the  Japanese  before  and  after 
the  Revolution  of  Meiji.  This  already  reveals  the  practical  and 
virtue-centric  tendency  of  their  natural  interests. 

It  was  in  the  sixth  year  of  Meiji,  i.e.,  1873,  that  a  philosoph- 
ical course,  was  for  the  first  time,  opened  in  the  Kaisei-Gakko, 
the  former  institution  of  the  Tokyo  Imperial  University. 
Prof.  J.  Summers  gave  his  lectures  on  logic,  using  Fowler's 
"Deductive  Logic"  and  Mill's  "System  of  Logic"  as  textbooks. 
The  next  year  Professor  Syle  was  added  to  the  staff.  He 
taught  psychology,  using  as  textbooks  Hopkin's  "Study  of  Man" 
and  Haven's  "Mental  Philosophy." 

Two  years  later  Dr.  M.  Toyama,  who  had  studied  at  Michi- 
gan University,  was  appointed  the  first  Japanese  professor  in 
Philosophy.  He  introduced  Spencer's  thought  in  its  various 
lines.  The  next  year,  i.e.,  1877,  Prof.  E.  S.  Morse  introduced 
the  evolution  theory  of  Darwin  and  Huxley  in  a  manner  which 
gave  it  influence  and  currency.  Prof.  Fenollosa,  who  in  1878 
came  from  Harvard  University,  gave  lectures  on  religion  based 
on  Spencer's  Sociology.  Mr.  Fukuzawa's  "Jiji-shogen,  or 
Random  Thoughts  of  the  Time,"  which  is  largely  based  on 
Galton's  theory  of  heredity,  reflects  the  prevalent  tendencies  of 
this  epoch.  Though  Christianity  had  already  begun  to  strike 
root  in  the  native  mind,  and  though  heated  discussions  had 
appeared  between  Christians  and  those  who  followed  Darwin 
and  Spencer,  the  general  mind  rather  tended  to  favor  the 
latter,  proving  the  justice  of  Professor  Chamberlain's  words: 
"They  now  bow  down  before  the  shrine  of  Herbert  Spencer." 

There  is  another  factor  noticeable  in  the  philosophical  devel- 
opment at  this  period,  namely,  the  influence  of  Utilitarianism. 
The  group  of  the  Keio-Gijuku,^  now  Keio  University,  gave 
chief  attention  and  favor  to  the  teaching  of  Bentham  and  Mill. 

The  most  widely  spread  and  most  influential  type  of  thought 
was,  no  doubt,  that  of  the  French  Enlightenment.    It  prevailed 

'Founded  by  Mr.  Fukuzawa  a  few  years  before  the  Revolution  of 
Meiji. 


not  with  this  or  that  group  of  thinkers,  but  among  the  nation 
at  large.  The  nation  had  become  acquainted  with  the  Western 
nations  and  with  their  various  forms  of  government.  The  de- 
mand for  Hberty,  equality  and  the  individual's  right  to  judge 
things  by  his  own  reason  then  naturally  arose;  and  driven 
by  an  inward  need  for  these  things  people  found  the  great 
teachers  in  that  line, — ^such  teachers  as  Voltaire,  Montesquieu, 
and  Rousseau.  The  introduction  of  this  French  thought  was 
made  by  those  natives  who  studied  in  France.  Of  these 
Mr.  T.  Nakae  was  the  most  noted.  He  translated  Rousseau's 
*'Social  Contract"  in  1882.^  The  French  thought  was  so 
influential  at  this  time  that  it  inspired  the  Liberal  party  and 
through  this  party  the  whole  nation,  and  hastened  the  esablish- 
ment  of  constitutional  government  in  Japan. 

The  Japanese  Enlightenment  differs  from  the  Greek  Enlight- 
enment and  resembles  that  of  the  eighteenth  century  in  its  pre- 
dominantly practical  character.  The  Greek  Sophists  were 
skeptical.  They  despaired  of  solving  the  problem  of  the 
universe,  and  finding  no  satisfactory  objective  criterion  to 
distinguish  between  right  and  wrong,  appealed  either  to  the 
authority  of  the  customary  or  to  the  varying  judgments  of  indi- 
vidual men.  The  Japanese,  on  the  other  hand,  held  firmly  to  the 
conviction  that  there  is  universal  truth,  and  that  it  is  attainable 
by  man's  reason.  This  is  shown  in  the  Emperor  Mutsuhito's 
announcement  that  "Knowledge  should  be  sought  for  through- 
out the  world."  That  declaration  rests  on  the  conviction  that 
truth  is  universal,  and  that  we  possess  the  power  of  discovering 
it.  Unfortunately  or  fortunately,  however,  the  movement 
lasted  only  little  more  than  one  decade  of  years,  and  before 
it  could  develop  its  full  content  the  reactionary  movement  had 
begun  to  make  its  appearance,  and  the  philosophical  develop- 
ment entered  upon  the  second  stage. 

Here  a  question  naturally  arises :  "Why  was  the  Enlighten- 
ment in  Japan  so  short?"  Several  points  may  be  noted.  First, 
the  common  people,  or  mass  of  men,  were  perfectly  satisfied 
with  the  verdict  of  common  sense  under  whose  guidance  they 
made  no  extreme  adventure  in  thought  and  action,  and  conse- 

•  He  also  translated  some  other  French  books ;  e.g.,  Fouillees  "Histoire 
de  la  Philosophie." 

10 


quently  no  grievous  mistakes.  With  regard  to  the  basis  of 
ethics,  Hkewise,  it  may  be  safely  affirmed  that  ethical  opinions 
were,  in  general,  very  moderate.  Owing  to  their  practical 
tendency  they  always  took  account  of  their  effect  upon  life. 
They  were  constructive  and  avoided  any  extreme  thought  which 
is  destructive  and  might  endanger  actual  life. 

Secondly,  the  reactionary  spirit  arose  and  was  the  chief 
factor  in  bringing  the  movement  to  its  end.  In  fact,  the  intro- 
duction of  Western  culture  and  science  into  Japan  moved  hand 
in  hand  with  the  development  of  political  affairs.  The  restor- 
ation of  Imperial  power  over  the  whole  nation  by  compelling 
the  people  to  make  some  sort  of  revolution  in  the  various 
spheres,  political,  moral,  social  and  religious,  etc.,  supplied  an 
opportunity  for  the  manifestation  of  individualism  of  the  mod- 
ern Enlightenment  type.  But  when  these  changes  had  been 
made  and  the  new  modes  of  government  were  firmly  estab- 
lished, the  people  naturally  began  to  reflect,  and  came  to  be 
aware  of  their  native  conditions  as  these  had  historically  devel- 
oped. In  other  words,  the  Japanese  national  consciousness  was 
awakened.  This  turn  of  current  thought,  strange  to  say,  was 
hastened  by  the  Enlightenment  movement  itself.  For  in 
contributing  to  the  establishment  of  constitutional  government, 
it  aided  in  supplying  the  conditions  under  which  a  greater 
degree  of  self-consciousness  could  be  attained.  When  Japan 
became  truly  aware  of  itself,  its  gaze  inevitably  returned  upon 
its  past  and  the  Enlightenment,  in  its  cosmopoHtan  character, 
was  at  an  end. 

2.  The  Second  Stage 
(Approximately  i886-ipoj) 
In  the  second  stage  in  the  development  of  philosophy  in  Japan 
German  thought  is  dominant.  While  the  constitution  was  being 
drawn  up  various  institutions  of  European  origin  were  studied, 
and  the  opinions  of  experts  were  asked  for.  Among  those  to 
whom  we  largely  owe  the  adjustment  of  State  affairs  was  Dr.. 
Stein  of  Austria,  who  taught  our  senior  statesmen  the  idea  of  a 
State  and  how  to  manage  it.  At  the  same  time  public  opinion 
began  to  favor  German  principles  in  politics,  mainly  because  the 
institutions  of  Germany  were  akin  to  those  of  Japan.    The  mili- 

II 


tary  system  also  was  fashioned  on  the  German  model,  though 
previously  it  had  been  fashioned  on  the  French  model.  More- 
over, from  the  middle  of  the  second  decade  of  Meiji,  the 
students  sent  abroad  by  the  government  prosecuted  their  studies 
mostly  in  Germany,  and  on  their  return  were  looked  upon  as 
leaders  of  contemporary  Japan.  In  these  various  ways  German 
thought  came  to  permeate  the  fields  of  politics,  education,  law, 
music  and  the  various  sciences.  This  atmosphere  of  philo- 
Germanism  took  its  course  in  Japan  side  by  side  with  the 
national  consciousness  which  encouraged  the  renaissance  of 
national  classics. 

It  was  as  early  as  1880  that  Professor  Cooper  first  introduced 
Kant's  critical  philosophy  to  Japan.  Professor  Fenollosa  also 
taught  at  this  time  Hegel's  logic.  In  1885  and  1886  Professor 
Knox,^  professor  at  Meiji-Gakuin,  gave  his  lectures  in  the 
Tokyo  Imperial  University.  Professor  Busse,  who  is  now 
professor  at  Konigsberg  University,  Germany,  followed  Pro- 
fessor Knox.  Both  of  them  tended  toward  Lotze's  thought. 
In  1890  Dr.  T.  Inone®  returned  from  Germany  after  some 
years'  study  at  Leipzig.  He  was  chiefly  influenced  by  the 
teaching  of  Wundt.  Two  years  previously.  Dr.  Motosa,  on 
returning  from  America  after  some  years'  study  at  Boston 
University  and  Johns  Hopkins,  had  introduced  psychophysics. 
This  study  also  drew  the  natives  toward  Wundt,  and  his 
influence  became  very  considerable.  Four  years  later,  i.e.,  in 
1894,  Professor  Koeber  took  the  chair  of  Professor  Busse  after 
his  resignation  and  holds  it  at  the  present  time.  He  gave  his 
courses,  at  this  time,  on  Schopenhauer  and  Hartmann.  Thus 
in  this  period  German  thought  in  one  or  another  of  its  diverse 
forms  prevailed  in  philosophical  circles. 

While  German  thought  was  influencing  the  Japanese,  the 
general  tendency,  as  might  be  expected,  gradually  changed  from 
that  of  the  Enlightenment  spirit  to  that  of  the  Romantic  move- 
ment. As  the  Enlightenment  spirit  declined  the  conservative 
and  retrospective   spirit  began  to  take  its  place  among  the 

^  Cf.,  Professor  Knox's  "A  Japanese  Philosopher." 
*Dr.   T.    Inone   lectured   in    Paris   in    1897,   upon   the   development 
of  philosophical  thought  in  Japan,    Since  that  time  he  has  been  devoting 
himself  to  the  completion  of  his  study  of  Japanese  philosophy. 

12 


people  who  were  so  youthful  in  the  previous  stage.  In  some 
sense,  indeed,  this  is  the  period  of  the  awakening  of  the 
self -consciousness  that  accompanies  adolescence — complex  and 
full  of  danger.  The  Japanese  mind,  as  we  have  noted,  had  been 
influenced  over  a  very  long  period  by  Buddhism,  and  that  left 
as  a  permanent  deposit  a  deep  pathos  and  seriousness  of  spirit. 
A  brighter  more  confident  attitude  had  temporarily  appeared 
in  the  decade  of  the  Enlightenment,  but  now  that  the  current 
was  altered,  Buddhism  revived.  The  classical  literature  was 
recalled  with  enthusiasm.  The  general  interest  in  literary 
matters  greatly  increased;  and  in  dissatisfaction  with  mere 
translations  from  foreign  tongues  the  desire  arose  for  original 
and  native  works.  This  period  has  therefore  been  entitled  the 
"Renaissance  of  Meiji."  It  not  only  represents  the  revival  of 
the  Japanese  classics ;  but  also  represents,  like  Romanticism  in 
modern  Europe,  what  may  be  called  the  "Renaissance  of  Won- 
der." As  a  reaction  against  the  rationalism  of  the  previous 
period  it  bears  the  sign  of  anti-intellectualism,  which  led,  how- 
ever, in  the  next  stage,  to  a  higher  and  deeper  view  of  the  true 
nature  and  function  of  thought  or  reason. 

This  quasi-Romanticism  helped  philosophical  development 
by  the  close  contact  it  established  between  literature  and 
philosophy.  Philosophers  Hke  Schopenhauer,  Hartmann  and 
Nietzsche  came  to  exercise  great  influence  in  general  thought. 
At  this  time  also  many  young  natives  became  interested 
in  the  study  of  aesthetics.  Especial  mention  may  be  made 
of  the  writings  on  this  subject  of  Dr.  Takayama,  Dr.  Mori 
and  Dr.  Tsubouchi.  The  rise  of  literature,  in  short, 
was  largely  inspired  by  philosophical  thought,  and  the  advance- 
ment of  literature,  in  turn,  gave  a  stimulus  to  the  development 
of  philosophy. 

There  are  two  other  factors  that  call  for  notice  in  this  stage 
of  philosophical  development ;  namely,  historicism  and  national- 
ism. Both  appear  in  the  reaction  against  the  Enlightenment 
movement.  Nationalism  is  opposed  to  individualism  and  his- 
toricism to  the  revolutionary  spirit.  In  their  development  they 
took  on  various  different  aspects,  but  nationalism  developed 
chiefly  on  the  line  of  ethical  or  educational  interest;  while 
historicism  contributed  to  the  adoption  of  an  historical  method 
in  literature  and  in  scientific  studies. 

13 


Between  1890  and  1895  several  histories  of  Japanese  litera- 
ture were  published.  The  historical  study  of  Buddhism  was, 
for  the  first  time,  attempted  by  the  party  called  "New  Budd- 
hists." The  historical  study  of  the  Japanese  arts  was  also 
attempted.^  These  are  indications  that  the  Japanese  had  come 
to  be  aware  of  the  important  truth  of  historical  continuity. 

As  to  nationalism,  we  may  recognize  that  its  inspiration 
came  direct  from  German  thought.  But  it  is  none  the  less  true, 
that  the  native  mind  welcomed  the  nationalist  point  of  view 
owing  to  its  affinity  with  the  political  and  social  needs  of 
Japan  at  this  time.  Nationalism  first  appeared  as  the  "Conserv- 
ative Party,"  whose  chief  representatives  were  Mr.  Shiga  and 
Dr.  Miyake.  They  published  in  1887  a  new  magazine  called 
"Nihonjin"  in  which  they  warned  the  Japanese  not  to  imitate 
other  nations,  blindly  forgetting  their  own  meritorious  qualities 
as  recorded  in  history.  A  group  who  adopted  a  policy  called 
"Japanism"  arose  some  ten  years  later.  Their  message  accord- 
ing to  its  foremost  propounder.  Dr.  Takayama,  is  not  "conserva- 
tion" but  "criticism,"  that  is  to  say,  to  criticise  everything  ac- 
cording to  the  standard  of  the  national  needs,  regardless 
whether  what  is  criticized  be  old  or  new,  native  or  foreign.  The 
attitude  of  Japanism  is,  he  maintains,  distinctively  critical  in 
contrast  with  the  uncritical  conservatism  of  the  old  party.  This 
nationalism  alike  in  its  more  conservative  and  its  more  liberal 
form,  found  opportunity  to  enrich  its  content  and  to  define  its 
position  both  in  the  solving  of  internal  problems  and  in  the 
constantly  recurring  conflicts  with  other  nations.  It  has  been 
greatly  intensified  by  the  wars  with  China  and  Russia. 

This  national  spirit  came  to  be  so  strong  that  a  hot  contro- 
versy arose  in  1892  between  the  conservative  thinkers  and  those 
converted  to  Christianity.  The  points  in  the  indictment  of 
Christianity  were  formulated  as  follows : 

( 1 )  Christianity  pretends  to  be  a  universal  religion,  and  does 
not  recognize  national  difference.  This  contradicts  the  funda- 
mental teaching  of  the  edict  which  is  strongly  national  and 
patriotic. 

(2)  Christian    morality    is    founded    upon    a    supernatural 

^E.g.,  Dr.  Takayama  wrote  his  "History  of  Japanese  Arts." 

14 


belief  in  Divinity.  This  is  contrary  to  the  practical  and 
nationalistic  basis  of  our  morality. 

(3)  The  love  of  Christianity  is  universal  and  does  not  admit 
special  duties  toward  ruler  and  parents.  This  is  diametrically 
opposed  to  the  cardinal  virtues,  filial  piety  and  loyalty,  as  in- 
sisted upon  in  the  edict. 

This  representation  of  Christianity  may  perhaps  be  regarded 
as  too  clearly  erroneous  and  partial.  The  conservative  thinkers, 
however,  in  their  enthusiastic  adoption  of  the  nationalist  stand- 
point, seemed  to  themselves  to  be  inevitably  led  to  this  inter- 
pretation of  Christianity. 

To  conclude:  in  this  prolonged  second  stage,  the  people  of 
Japan  passed  from  the  Enlightenment  to  the  Romanticist  atti- 
tude. Their  Romanticist  attitude  found  expression  for  itself  on 
the  one  hand  in  historicism,  and  on  the  other  in  nationalism. 

3.    The  Third  Stage 
(Approximately^  ipo^  to  the  present  time.) 

Dr.  Kuwaki  calls  this  period  that  of  Subjectivism,  adopting 
the  term  used  by  Prof.  K.  Lamprecht.  As  he  has  explained,  the 
spirit  of  this  period,  like  that  of  Europe  in  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  is  marked  by  self-consciousness.  We 
find  here,  as  in  the  history  of  Greek  thought,  a  change  of  cur- 
rent, ebb  and  flov/.  We  have  seen  that  the  two  main 
achievements  of  the  preceding  stage,  were  historicism  and  na- 
tionalism. Toward  the  end  of  that  stage,  however,  the  Japanese 
have  come  round  to  the  opposite  of  the  first  stage.  Rationalism 
has  now  gone  and  reliance  upon  the  instinctive  has  taken  its 
place.  The  atmosphere  which  was  so  fresh  during  the 
first  stage,  the  Enlightenment  period,  has  become  heavy  and 
oppressive ;  and  many  are  led  to  seek  their  salvation  in  religion, 
especially  in  Christianity.  This  new  spiritual  demand  may  be 
characterized  by  such  words  as  "restlessness"  or  "self- 
knowledge."  They  are  very  prevalent  in  the  literature  of  the 
time.  With  this  changing  attitude  the  second  stage  is  ended 
and  our  present  stage  is  before  us  with  its  new  message  and 
new  hope. 

In  proportion  to  the  general  progress  in  experience  and  in 
knowledge,  the  philosophical  interest  came  to  be  deepened  as 

15 


well  as  expanded.  The  native  thinkers  began  at  this  time  ta 
present  their  careful  expositions  to  the  public.  For  instance 
Dr.  Hatano  published  his  ''Study  on  Spinoza"  in  1910. 
Last  year  Mr.  Watsuji  completed  his  study  of  Nietzsche,  and 
Mr.  Inage  his  exposition  of  Eucken's  thought.  Professor 
Kuvvaki  also  published  several  works  among  which  his  "Gendai 
Schicho  Jikko"  is  the  most  notable.  It  is  marked  by  clearness 
and  scholarly  treatment  of  modem  thought  under  the  heads 
of  Realism,  Agnosticism,  Naturalism,  Historicism,  Impression- 
ism, Pragmatism  and  New  Realism. 

There  are  many  translations  of  philosophical  works.  Plato's 
works  were  translated  by  Mr.  T.  Kimura  in  1903.  Eucken's 
works  and  Bergson's  works  have  been  translated  by  young 
students.  Dr.  Anezaki,  now  lecturer  at  Harvard  University, 
has  recently  translated  Schopenhauer's  "Welt  als  Wille  und 
Vorstellung."  Many  other  works  were  also  translated, 
e.g.,  works  by  Bowne,  Fullerton,  Hibben,  Hoffding,  James, 
and  Wundt.  We  must,  however,  remember  that  there  are 
many  important  works  which  are  read  by  the  Japanese  with 
great  interest,  and  which  yet  for  one  or  another  reason  are 
not  translated  into  Japanese.  We  must  bear  in  mind  also  that 
most  of  the  Japanese  students  who  interest  themselves  in 
philosophical  study  are  able  to  use  for  their  purpose  at  least 
either  English,  German  or  French;  and  this  perhaps  partly 
accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  translation  of  foreign  works 
into  Japanese  is  decreasing  in  number  though  certainly  it  is 
advancing  in  quality;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  native 
works  are  increasing  year  after  year.^^ 

^"The  following  statistical  table  confirms  these  remarks: 


(years) 

(translation) 

(native   works) 

1877 

232 

4-745 

1882 

241 

8.751 

1887 

692 

8.885 

1892^ 

173 

21.409 

1897 

141 

25.381 

1898 

9 

21.097 

1899 

180 

21.455 

1900 

III 

18.505 

1901 

35 

19.431 

1902 

8 

23.349 

1903 

17 

24.738 

1904 

28 

26.582 

Japan  entered  the  Internatioi 

nal  Union  of 

Copyright  Reservation  in  1888. 

16 

Thus  far  we  have  studied  the  stages  of  philosophical  devel- 
opment in  Japan  viewed  from  the  point  of  historical  continuity. 
There  are,  however,  still  other  problems  which  have  not 
been  dealt  with,  and  some  points  which,  though  already  briefly 
touched  upon,  need  more  detailed  treatment.  To  these  I  may 
now  proceed. 

IV.    THE  RELATION  OF  RELIGION  TO  THE  PHILO- 
SOPHICAL DEVELOPMENT  IN  JAPAN 

There  are  three  religions  in  Japan;  Shintoism,  Buddhism 
and  Christianity.  Shintoism  did  not  play  a  very  important  part 
in  the  development  of  philosophy,  except  in  connection  with 
ethical  problems.  Even  in  that  field,  Confucianism  played  the 
more  important  part.  Shintoism,  however,  cooperated  with 
Confucianism  in  forming  the  national  spirit.  For  a  long  time  it 
drew  numerous  pilgrims  to  the  high  mountains  or  to  retired 
valleys.  Their  superstition  was  thus  mingled  with  the  sacred 
touch  of  nature  as  well  as  with  some  sort  of  hero  worship. 
This  habit  of  pilgrimage,  though  having  no  very  direct  or 
immediate  effect  upon  life,  certainly  influenced  the  national 
morality  and  especially  the  spirit  of  "Bushido."  The  tenets  of 
Shintoism,  as  Dr.  Nitobe  says  in  his  famous  "Bushido,"  cover 
the  two  predominating  features  of  the  emotional  life  of  our 
race — Patriotism  and  Loyalty.  As  Prof.  J.  Royce  has  said  in 
his  "Problem  of  Christianity" : 

"The  Japanese  are  fond  of  telling  us  that  their  imperial 
family,  and  their  national  life,  are  coeval  with  heaven  and 
earth.  The  boast  is  cheerfully  extravagant ;  but  its  relation  to 
a  highly  developed  form  of  the  consciousness  of  a  community 
is  obvious.  Here,  then,  is  a  consideration  belonging  to  social 
psychology,  but  highly  important  for  our  understanding  of  the 
sense  in  which  a  community  is  or  can  be  possessed  of  one 
mental  life." 

Buddhism  is  more  closely  connected  with  the  development  of 
philosophy  in  Japan.  It  prepared  the  people  for  their  new 
study  of  Western  thought.  Also,  many  Buddhists,  while  still 
remaining  devout  students  of  their  own  Oriental  literature, 
themselves  prosecuted  the  study  of  Occidental  philosophy. 

During  the  Enlightenment  period  Buddhist  priests  had  been 

17 


severely  attacked  for  their  conventionality  and  for  their  lack  of 
influence.  They  were,  however,  awakened  partly  by  this  at- 
tack and  partly  by  the  appearance  of  Christianity  as  a  new 
rival  religion  which  was  now  powerfully  influencing  the  Japan- 
ese. Compelled  to  arm  themselves  with  the  weapon  of  knowl- 
edge and  to  take  the  offensive  against  the  new  rival,  the  Japan- 
ese Buddhists  were  constrained  to  study  the  new  thought  of 
the  West.  Their  choice  of  means  to  meet  the  situation  has 
been  well  judged,  and  has  enabled  them  to  take  full  advantage 
of  the  favouring  reaction  against  the  unhistorical  Enlighten- 
ment movement.  Availing  themselves  of  every  opportunity, 
the  Japanese  Buddhists  became  more  and  more  active  in  their 
study  and  in  their  social  work.  In  1876  Dr.  Manjo,  a  priest 
of  the  "Shinshiu"  sect,  together  with  a  friend  studied  in  Eng- 
land under  Max  Miiller.  Dr.  Manjo  returned  from  England  in 
1884.  In  the  same  year  Mr.  Kitabatake  returned  from  Ger- 
many. When  Mr.  Hara  in  1878  became  lecturer  at  the  Tokyo 
Imperial  University  he  opened  the  way  for  the  students  of  the 
University  to  devote  themselves  to  Buddhistic  study. 

The  Japanese  Buddhists  found  their  most  congenial  inspira- 
tion in  Schopenhauer,  in  Spinoza,  and  in  Hegel's  quasi-Panthe- 
ism.  But  their  study  has  not,  of  course,  been  confined  to  these. 
Dr.^.  Inone's  "Bukko  Katsuron,"  one  of  the  most  influential 
of  the  new  Buddhist  writings,  was  mainly  based  on  Spencer's 
Agnosticism.  Dr.  E.  Inone  established  a  philosophical  institu- 
tion in  Tokyo  for  the  Buddhist  students.  Besides  this  institu- 
tion several  Buddhist  universities  and  colleges  were  established. 
The  two  Buddhist  thinkers.  Dr.  Takayama  and  Dr.  Anezaki, 
while  contributing  to  the  historical  and  philosophical  study  of 
Buddhism,  also  aided  in  its  more  popular  appeal.  Dr.  Taka- 
yama was  specially  interested  in  Saint  Nichiren  who  has  been 
regarded  as  the  ^'Saint  Paul  of  Japanese  Buddhism."  Dr. 
Anezaki  wrote  an  essay:  "How  Christianity  Appeals  to  a 
Japanese  Buddhist."  He  attempts  in  that  essay  to  show  that 
there  are  in  Buddhism  points  similar  to  Christianity,  though 
in  their  historical  developments  they  have  taken  very  different 
courses.  "These  two  religions  (Christianity  and  Buddhism), 
viewed  in  their  respective  historical  sources,  show  two  uncom- 
promising if  not  contradictory  aspects  of  the  religious  experi- 

18 


ence  of  mankind."  He  concisely  formulates  these  different 
aspects,  maintaining  that  Christianity  is  more  practical  and 
religious,  while  Buddhism  is  more  speculative  and  less  re- 
ligious. He  further  argues  that  there  is  an  essential  similarity 
under  these  different  aspects,  since  in  both  cases  personal, 
moral,  evidence  of  religion  rests  on  the  person  of  the  founder. 
He  concludes  that  Christianity  is  not  foreign  to  Japanese 
Buddhism,  but  is  in  all  its  essential  features  akin  to  it.  I  may 
not  pause  to  examine  these  views.  It  is  enough  for  us  merely 
to  note  the  attitude  of  the  Japanese  Buddhists  and  to  catch  a 
glimpse  of  their  philosophical  interests  in  the  sphere  of 
religion. 

In  fact,  the  Japanese  Buddhists  are  striving  to  meet  the 
demand  of  the  age,  adopting  the  same  good  means  and  meth- 
ods which  the  Christians  have  been  employing.  They  are  very 
active  in  their  social  work.  They  are  also  attempting  to  give 
a  new  and  more  modern  interpretation  of  their  central  doc- 
trines. Indeed  it  may  be  said  that  the  Japanese  Buddhists  are 
to  a  certain  extent  reforming  their  doctrines.  It  is  still  a 
question  whether  this  can  be  successfully  achieved  without  an 
open  breach  with  the  traditions  they  represent.  At  any  rate, 
their  former  attitudte  towards  Christianity  which  was  hostile 
and  extremely  antagonistic,  has  gradually  changed  to  what 
may  fairly  be  entitled  Christianization,  not  only  on  the  side  of 
practical  reforms  but  even  on  the  side  of  doctrine  and  its 
interpretation.  This  change  of  attitude  has  strengthened,  rather 
than  weakened  their  interest  in  philosophical  problems;  and 
they  continue  actively  to  participate  in  the  development  of 
Japanese  philosophical  thinking.  But  Christianity  is  no  less 
closely  bound  up  with  the  present  development  of  philosophy 
in  Japan.  And  to  understand  the  part  which  it  plays  we  must 
always  bear  in  mind  the  many  and  important  missionary  col- 
leges and  seminaries  in  which  the  young  natives  have  been  in- 
itiated into  modern  culture  and  science.  Even  if  nothing  be 
said  about  the  main  contribution  of  Christian  missionaries  in 
the  sphere  of  religion,  their  merits  as  benefactors  of  Japanese 
civilization  can  never  be  forgotten. 

Christianity  in  Japan  has  had  many  difficulties  to  face;  and 
these  difficulties  have  changed  with  the  changing  conditions. 
The  Christians  have  fought  against  Spencer's  thought.     They 

19 


have  fought  against  the  so-called  narrow  nationalism.  They 
have  fought  against  materialism.  Materialism  is  not  perhaps  very 
active  in  Japan,  but  at  times  the  Japanese  Haeckels  have  publish- 
ed their  manifestos.  Dr.  K.  Kato,  the  former  president  of  the 
Tokyo  Imperial  University,  is  one  of  the  leading  materialist 
thinkers.  Mr.  Nakae's  "Zoku-Ichinen-Yuhan,"  a  materialist 
exposition,  was  written  during  the  author's  fatal  sickness  and 
published  in  1901,  and  though  not  a  truly  scholarly  work,  has 
been  widely  read.  The  situation  in  Japan  is  now  more  favor- 
able to  Christianity  than  at  any  previous  period,  yet  the  Chris- 
tian propaganda  has  of  necessity  many  great  difficulties  to 
overcome.  Dr.  Schneder,  the  president  of  North  Japan  College, 
recently  addressed  the  conference  of  the  Federated  Missions 
as  follows: 

"Wihile  'Christianity  is  making  a  little  progress,  other  great  forces 
like  that  of  nationalism,  the  revival  of  Shintoism,  the  renewed  activity 
of  Buddhism,  agnostic  or  anti-moral  literature  and  practical  material- 
ism, that  seem  to  work  in  deadly  opposition  to  it,  are  growing  in 
strength.  .  .  .  Also  the  more  intimate  knowledge  which  the  Japanese 
people  are  gaining  year  by  year  of  the  moral  and  social  conditions 
prevailing  in  the  Christian  West,  and  of  the  thought-currents  of  the 
great  universities  does  not  constitute  to  them  an  unequivocal  argument 
in  favor  of  Christianity." 

Such  difficult  conditions  forced  the  Japanese  Christians  to 
fight  hard,  and  gave  little  chance  for  the  wholesale  conversion 
of  large  numbers.^^ 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact,  however,  that  some  of  the  most 
noted  Japanese  scholars  belong  to  the  group  of  Christian 
thinkers,  or  were  educated  at  some  mission  college,  such,  for 
instance,  as  Professor  Nakajima,  professor  of  moral  philoso- 
phy at  the  Tokyo  Imperial  University,  Dr.  Motora  who  was 
professor  of  psychophysics  in  the  same  institution,  and  Dr. 
Onishi  one  of  the  younger  generation.^-    It  is  no  exaggeration 

"  The  number  of  the  native  converts  in  the  various  churches,  as  given 
in  The  Missionary  Review  of  the  World  for  the  year  1913  (vol.  xxvi 
N.  S.,  p.  474)   is  as  follows: 

Protestant  83,638 

Roman  Catholic  66,689 

Greek  Catholic  32,246 

"All  three  men  were  educated  at  Doshisha  University.  Doshisha 
was  established  by  J.  Niejima  in  1875. 

20 


to  say  that  the  greater  part  of  the  students  of  philosophy  in 
Japan  at  present  are  either  Buddhists  or  Christians;  and  that 
the  atmosphere  of  reHgious  circles  is  favorable  to  philosoph- 
ical enquiry.  These  twin  brothers  of  the  spirit,  religion  and 
philosophy,  have  not  on  the  whole  been  hostile  in  Japan.  They 
have  cooperated  in  their  common  task. 

V.     SOCIAL  AND   ETHICAL  PROBLEMS   IN   RELA- 
TION TO  THE  PHILOSOPHICAL  DEVELOPMENT 

The  most  significant  change  in  social  conditions  in  Japan 
since  the  Revolution  of  Meiji  is  that  belief  in  freedom  and 
equality  has  taken  the  place  of  the  traditional  feudahsm.  In 
ethical  fields  the  same  change  is  obvious.  Individualism  is  no 
longer  condemned  as  intrinsically  evil.  In  certain  quarters  there 
were,  of  course,  men  who  were  opposed  to  the  new  tendency, 
and  held  the  view  that  the  Japanese,  while  adopting  all  mater- 
ial civilization  from  the  West,  ought  to  remain  faithful  to  the 
traditional  views  of  life.  The  reaction  against  the  Enlighten- 
ment tendency  and  the  awakening  of  the  national  consciousness 
encouraged  the  conservative  party,  and  from  time  to  time 
heated  discussions  have  arisen  between  these  two  opposed 
schools.  In  1888  the  famous  edict  concerning  the  moral  prin- 
ciple of  the  Japanese  was  issued.  Some  conservative  scholars 
hold  the  view  that  this  edict  is  exclusively  based  on  nationalism, 
and  that  it  denounces  individualism.  Others  have  rejected  this 
extreme  view  and  have  maintained  that  the  edict  neither  favors 
nor  rejects  either  of  them.  Nationalism  has,  however,  come 
to  prevail  in  the  field  of  public  education.  Moreover  the  wars 
with  China  and  with  Russia  have  strengthened  the  nationalist 
forces,  and  for  a  time  individualism  seems  to  have  been  .losing 
favour.  Nevertheless  the  change  of  social  life  from  the  old 
feudalism  to  the  new  individualist  system  has  been  steadily 
modifying  the  Japanese  modes  of  regarding  life.  The  strug- 
gle for  existence  and  the  open  door  of  the  business  career  have 
been  playing  a  wonderful  part  in  reforming  the  social  and 
ethical  ideas  of  the  people.  Moreover,  universal  education 
open  on  equal  terms  to  both  male  and  female,  rich  and  poor, 
has  given  the  young  a  sense  of  equality  and  independence  with 
the  accompanying  consciousness  of  human  dignity.    Thus  na- 

21 


tionalism  has  gradually  come  to  make  room  for  individualism ; 
each  has  been  modified  in  terms  of  the  other. 

A  heated  discussion  has  recently  arisen  as  to  the  interpreta- 
tion of  State  sovereignty.  Professor  Minobe  and  Professor 
Ichimura  held  the  view  that  both  Emperor  and  subjects  belong 
to  the  State,  which  is  the  seat  of  sovereignty.  Professor 
Uesugi  attacked  this  position  maintaining  that  the  State 
belongs  to  the  Emperor,  and  that  the  Emperor  is  therefore 
himself  the  sole  seat  of  sovereignty.  The  conservative  stand- 
point seems  to  be  steadily  changing.  Prof.  T.  Inone,  for  in- 
stance, who  for  a  long  time  was  the  champion  of  nationalism 
has  expressed  the  conviction  that  even  in  Japan  the  State  may 
be  the  center  of  sovereignty,  both  Emperor  and  subjects  belong- 
ing to  it.  For  has  not  Emperor  Nintoku  himself  declared  that 
his  subjects  do  not  belong  to  him,  but  that  he  himself  exists  for 
his  subjects'  sake?  Such  discussions  must  ultimately  issue  in 
genuinely  philosophical  discussion  of  the  central  problems  of 
ethical  and  political  theory. 

VI.  THE  PHILOSOPHICAL  DEVELOPMENT  VIEWED 

FROM  THE  SIDE  OF  EDUCATION— SOCIETIES 

AND  PERIODICALS 

The  Imperial  Universities  and  some  other  private  universi- 
ties offer  courses  in  philosophy,  and  almost  all  mission  colleges 
require  the  study  of  logic,  ethics,  and  history  of  philosophy.^^ 

^The   following  were  the  courses   offered  at  the   Tokyo   Imperial 
University  in  1913. 

(Subject)  (hours)  (instructor)' 

1.  Chinese  Philosophy  (3) Prof  Hoshino. 

2.  History  of  Oriental  Philosophy (3) Prof.  T.  Inone. 

3.  The  World  and  Man (2) 

4.  Outline  of  Ethics (3) Prof.  Makajima. 

5.  'Comparative     Study     of     National 

Ideals   (3) " 

6.  Introduction  to  Philosophy (2) Prof.  Koeber. 

'Connected  with  a  brief  history  of 
Occidental  philosophy  from  an- 
tiquity to  the  present  time. 

7.  Kant (2) 

With  special  examination  of  his  smal- 
ler treatises  and  Post  Kantian 
Philosophy. 

22 


But  generally  speaking,  the  present  facilities  for  philosophical 
study  are  extremely  inadequate. 

There  are  three  noteworthy  philosophical  societies  in  Japan. 
The  first  philosophical  society  was  established  in  1884;  the 
second,  entitled  an  ethical  society,  was  established  in  1896. 
Both  societies  have  been  issuing  their  periodicals  since  their 
establishment.  A  third,  which  combines  the  study  of  phi- 
losophy and  ethics,  was  established  recently  but  has  not  yet 
issued  any  periodical.  Besides  these  periodicals  which  I  have 
just  mentioned  there  is  a  semi-philosophical  magazine  called 
"Rikugo-Zasshi,"  which  was  established  by  a  group  of  Chris- 
tian thinkers  in  1881.  It  has  made  noteworthy  contributions  to 
Japanese  philosophy,  particularly  during  the  period  when  Dr. 
Onishi  was  its  chief  editor. 


8.  History  of  Christianity (2) Prof.  Koeber. 

9.  Schopenhauer — "Welt  als  Wille  und 

Vorstellung"  "Parerga"  (reading 
and  interpretation  of  selected  chap- 
ters)  (i) 

10.  Lessing  as  Poet,  Critic  and  Philoso- 

pher    (reading    his    "Nathan    der 

Weise.")  (i) 

11.  iReading  of  Homer's  "Odyssey"  and 

Aeschylus'  "Prometheus"  for  ad- 
vanced students  of  Greek (2) " 

12.  Reading    of    Virgil's    Bucolics    and 

Ovid's  Metamorphoses (2"* " 

13.  Outline  of  Aesthetics (2) Prof.  Otsuka. 

14.  History  of  Modern  Culture (i) " 

15.  Sociology (4) Prof.  Tatebe. 

(2) 

Preceptorial — Reading  in  Comte's  works. 

(I) 

16.  Outline  of  Chinese  Ethics (6) Prof.  Hattori. 

17.  Psychology  (outline)    (3) Prof.  Matsumoto. 

18.  (Experimental  Psychology   (2) " 

19.  Metaphysics  (2) Mr.  Kinohisa. 

20.  History  of  Metaphysics (i) " 

21.  Ethics  (2) Prof.  Fukatsukuri. 

"       (4) 

22.  Logic (3) Mr.  Imafuku. 

etc. 


2Z 


VII.     CONCLUDING  REMARKS 

Let  us  now  briefly  summarize.  The  Japanese  are  a  practical 
people,  and  being  practical  they  always  direct  their  thought  to 
human  life.  For  a  long  time  they  regarded  the  realization  of 
truth  in  their  life  as  their  final  end  and  highest  glory.  Natur- 
ally, therefore,  they  came  to  emphasize  virtue  above  all  else. 
This  practical  and  virtue-centric  tendency  led  the  Japanese 
along  a  narrow  but  safe  path.  Under  the  influence  of  this 
tendency  they  established  the  new,  more  modern  and  more 
practical,  Buddhist  sects.  Through  this  tendency  there  also 
arose  from  Shinto,  Buddhist  and  Confucian  sources  the  so- 
called  ''Bushido"  and  "Shingaku." 

When  the  Japanese  came  in  contact  with  Western  civiliza- 
tion, they  at  once  began  to  adopt  what  most  directly  connected 
with  life  or  at  least  what  in  their  eyes  seemed  to  do  so:  i.e., 
medical  science  and  military  art.  From  these  sciences  through 
the  difficult  medium  of  totally  foreign  languages,  they  pro- 
gressed slowly,  step  by  step,  to  other  and  related  sciences. 
One  of  the  first  results  was  revolution  and  reform  at  home. 
These  eventually  issued  in  the  new  era  of  Meiji,  i.e.,  the  begin- 
ning of  New  Japan. 

Western  philosophy  was  not  introduced  from  America  and 
England  until  the  new  government,  after  an  intermediate  period 
of  turmoil  and  struggle,  had  become  firmly  established,  and 
until  a  great  body  of  scientific  knowledge  had  been  assimilated, 
and  foreign  languages,  especially  English,  had  gained  greater 
currency.  The  introduction  of  philosophy  was  the  final  step 
in  the  assimilation  of  Occidental  culture;  and  the  Japanese 
proceeded  in  their  usual  manner  to  utilize  the  new  philosophy 
for  the  furtherance  of  life.  Philosophy,  was  never  for  the 
Japanese  a  mere  toy  or  an  idle  imitation.  It  was  regarded  by 
them  as  the  only  means  of  attaining  such  truth  as  is  necessary 
in  order  that  life  may  be  more  fully  and  truly  realized. 

The  improvement  of  military  art,  the  advancement  of  scien- 
tific knowledge,  the  establishment  of  constitutional  government, 
the  expansion  of  new  education  over  the  whole  country,  the 
development  of  the  new  Buddhist  sects — all  these  things  show 
that  the  Japanese  do  not  imitate  in  vain.  Every  current  in 
New  Japan  may  be  inspired  by  the  main  and  greater  current 

24 


of  the  West,  yet  in  a  fundamental  sense  it  is  also  the  outcome 
of  an  inner  necessity  in  the  Japanese  themselves.  The  same  is 
true  of  their  philosophy.  The  practical  tendency  of  the  Japan- 
ese does  not  hinder  them  in  their  philosophical  development, 
though  it  may  lay  them  open  to  the  danger  of  clinging  too 
closely  to  concrete  things  and  of  thus  weakening  the  wings  of 
reflection  for  flight  above  the  ordinary  world.  Otherwise  there 
is  no  reason  for  distrusting  the  ability  and  the  true  interest  of 
the  Japanese  in  the  study  of  philosophy. 

To  conclude,  the  Japanese  are  remarkably  young.  In  the 
first  place,  they  are  young  in  the  sense  of  being  immature.  In 
the  field  of  philosophy  they  are  still  in  the  stage  of  assimila- 
tion, though  they  have  reached  the  stage  of  production  in  the 
field  of  science.  In  the  second  place,  they  are  young  in  the 
sense  that  they  are  eager  and  untiring  for  new  things  which 
are  good  and  useful.  They  look  forward  rather  than  back- 
ward, and  they  ardently  desire  to  free  themselves  from  the 
tyranny  of  the  present.  Whence  comes  this  childlike  and 
forward-looking  attitude  of  the  Japanese  ?  It  may  come  partly 
from  the  unconscious,  vital  energies  of  their  youthful  mind. 
But  it  originates  chiefly  in  their  self-conscious  activities.  The 
Japanese  are  aware  of  their  own  immaturity  and  shortcomings. 
They  have  a  keen  sense  of  dissatisfaction  with  their  present 
state,  and  ardently  desire  to  go  forth  towards  a  new  region  of 
higher  ideals.  For  this  reason  we  may  safely  say  that  the 
Japanese  have  a  promising  future.  And  so  long  as  their 
heart  is  simple  and  their  mind  is  unprejudiced,  like  a  child,  so 
long  as  they  are  thus  ardent  to  build  up  that  strength  of  mind 
which  apprehends  and  cleaves  to  great  universal  truths,  and 
so  long  as  they  are  striving  for  an  elevation  of  mind  that  may 
make  possible  higher  or  truer  ideals,  they  need  not,  we  may  be- 
lieve, trouble  themselves  with  the  question  that  has  been  raised 
by  some  foreign^  critics  as  to  whether  they  possess  the  added  gift 
of  originality.  If  we  humble  ourselves  by  self-knowledge  and 
love  human  souls  with  genuine  interest  as  Socrates  did ;  if  we 
consecrate  our  mental  endeavors  in  imitation  of  Spinoza ;  and  if 
we  strive  diligently  and  regularly  without  haste  and  without 
rest  through  our  whole  life  as  did  Immanuel  Kant ;  then,  what 
does  it  matter  whether  we  have  originality  or  not  ?  Originality,, 
in  fine,  is  rather  a  fruit  of  development,  than  a  necessary  and 

25 


essential  factor.  If  we  develop  our  minds  we  shall  be  able  to 
produce  something  which  is  original.  What  we  Japanese  or 
other  nations  need,  therefore,  is  self-knowledge  and  the  strug- 
gle for  the  realization  of  higher  ideals,  adopting  all  good  means 
for  this  end.  We  need  not,  nay,  even  ought  not,  to  waste  life 
in  doubts  and  fears  of  any  kind.  We  need  only  to  be  true  and 
earnest — spending  ourselves  on  the  work  before  us  with  sincere 
and  consecrating  attitude,  well  assured  that  the  right  perfor- 
mance of  this  hour's  duties  will  be  the  best  preparation  for  the 
hours  or  ages  that  follow  it.  ''Man's  highest  virtue,"  Goethe  has 
said,  "is  always,  so  far  as  may  be  possible,  to  rule  external  cir- 
cumstances, and  as  little  as  possible  to  be  ruled  by  them."  Al- 
though we  cannot  ignore  the  power  of  heredity,  chance  and  en- 
vironment, yet  we  may  be  convinced  that  it  is  our  self-con- 
scious activity  which  is  the  determining  factor  of  our  future 
destiny. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

*Okuma,  S.  :  Fifty  Years  of  Japan.     (1909) 
*Knox,  G.  W.  :    A  Japanese  Philosopher.    (1892) 
'•'Knox,  G.  W.  :  Japanese  Life  in  Town  and  Country.   (1908) 
*Knox,  G.  W.  :  The  Spirit  of  the  Orient.    (1906) 

MujAKAWA,  M.:  Life  of  Japan.     (1907) 
*GuLiCK,  S.  L. :   Evolution  of  the  Japanese.    (4th  ed.   1905) 
*NiTOBE,  I.:     Bushido.     (12  ed.  1907)      [Translated  from 
English  into  Japanese,  German,  French  and  other  languages.] 
*NiTOBE,  I :  Japanese  Nation.     (1912) 

UcHiMURA,  K. :    Representative  Men  of  Japan.    (1908) 

UcHiMURA,  K. :    How  I  Became  a  Christian. 

Clement,  E.  W.  :    A  Hand  Book  of  Modern  Japan.    (6th 
ed.    1905) 

^Americana  (Encyclopaedia).     [Articles  concerning  Japan 
are  written  by  Professor  Ladd  and  other  scholars.] 

Hearn,  L.  :  Kokoro. 

Dyer,  H.  :  Dai  Nippon.    (1904) 

Slead,  a.  :   Japan  by  the  Japanese. 

Slead,  A. :    Great  Japan.    (1905) 

Griffis,  W. :   Mikado's  Empire,    (nth  ed.    1906) 

Griffis,  W. :    Japanese  Nation  in  Evolution.     (1907) 

Scherer:    Japan  To-Day.    (1904) 

Scherer:    Young  Japan.     (1905) 

SuiMATSu:    The  Rising  Sun.     (1905) 

Lloyd:  Everyday  Japan.     (1906) 

26 


Tyndal:    Japan  and  Japanese.    (1910) 
Watson:    Future  of  Japan.     (1907) 
Ransome,  S.  :    Japan  in  Transition.     (1899) 
HiTOMi:  Le  Japon  (Paris,  1900) 
Harada,  T.  :  The  Faith  of  Japan.    (1914) 

*  Those  thus  marked  are  of  especial  importance. 


27 


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